PSYCHODYNAMIC COUNSELLING
Psychodynamic Approach
Introduction
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Is the major influence in the
understanding of human behaviour (pioneered by Sigmund Freud).
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Freud’s views continue to influence
contemporary psychology.
•
Some approaches extend, modifies its concepts
and procedures or reacts against it.
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Original term was Psychoanalysis
which refers to Freud’s original ideas.
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The term ‘psychodynamic’ is used to
include both Freud theories and those of his followers such as Carl Jung
(1964), Alfred Adler (1927) and Erik Erikson (1950).
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Two major theories are psychosexual and
psychosocial theories by Freud and Erikson respectively.
PSYCHODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
Principles of
the theory refer to key ideas which explain the nature (motivation) of human
behaviour
1. Human behavior and feelings are influenced by
unconscious inborn drives/motivations or irrational forces called
instincts.
•
Two major instinctual drives which
motivate human behaviour are:
Libido: life instincts such as eros
(the sex drive) and all pleasurable acts. The goal of much of life is gaining
pleasure and avoiding pain.
2. Human behavior and feelings are influenced by
unconscious inborn drives/motivations or irrational forces called
instincts.
•
Two major instinctual drives which
motivate human behaviour are:
Thanatos: aggressive drive to deal with
unpleasant experiences such pain and death. Managing this aggressive drive is a
major challenge to the human race.
2. Adult behavior and feelings (including problem
behaviours) are determined in the first six years of life.
‘the child is the parent of an adult’ meaning
that early childhood experiences build foundation for adult behaviour.
3. Human behavior is determined and therefore can be
predicted if the unconscious derive are analyzed.
The
meaning, all behaviours are not confined to individual experiences but are
indeed ‘generalizable’ to the wider population.
PSYCHOSEXUAL
DEVELOPMENT
[SIGMUND FREUD]
Structure of Personality
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Freud conceived the human personality as
structured into three parts the id, ego and superego, all developing at
different stages in our lives.
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Each part is unique but makes a relative
contribution to an individual's behavior (interact to form a whole)
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Parts of the unconscious mind (the
id and superego) are in constant conflict with the conscious part of the mind
(the ego).
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This conflict creates anxiety, which
could be dealt with by the ego’s use of defensive mechanisms.
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Human personality is shaped as the
instinctual drives are modified by different conflicts at different times in
childhood.
The Id (or It)
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Primitive and instinctive component of
personality.
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Consists of all the inherited (i.e.
biological) components of personality present at birth, including the sex
(life) instinct – Eros and the aggressive (death) instinct - Thanatos.
•
The id is the impulsive (and unconscious)
part of our psyche (responds directly and immediately to the instincts)
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Is infantile (not in touch with the
external world) and is not affected by reality, logic or the everyday world.
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Demands immediate satisfaction and when
this happens we experience pleasure, when it is denied we experience
‘unpleasure’ or tension.
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The id is selfish and does not consider
the needs of others (survival strategy)
The Ego (or I)
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Ego
(as used by Freud) is the decision making component of the personality which
mediates between the unrealistic id and the external real world.
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Tries to satisfy the demand of the id by
what is called reality principle.
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Like id, the ego seeks pleasure (feeling
good) but does reality testing to devise the appropriate way to fulfill the
selfish needs of the id realistically.
•
Reality refers to social norms or other
people’s expectation which forms a framework against which members of the
society should/ought to behave.
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The ego has no concept of right or
wrong.
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If the ego fails in its attempt to use
the reality principle anxiety is experienced.
•
Anxiety results into defense
mechanisms which are strategies to deal with unpleasant feelings (i.e.
anxiety) and therefore make us feel better.
•
The contemporary psychology, however,
describes ego as conscious part of human personality which constitutes the
identity, the ‘self’ (nafsi) or self image.
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The ego maintains the feeling of self
worthiness/importance by reflecting how individuals think, feel or behave in
the presence or imagined presence of other people.
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Ego involves the extent to which
an individual perceives and values themselves (self esteem) in relationship to
their self image (how others see them).
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Indeed, our “selves” exist within how we
present ourselves in public.
The Super Ego (or We)
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Incorporates the values and morals of
society which are learned since childhood from our parents and significant
others.
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According to Freud, superego develops
around the age of 3 – 5 during the phallic stage of psychosexual
development.
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The superego's function is to control
the id's impulses, especially those which society forbids, such as sex and
aggression.
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It also has the function of persuading
the ego to turn to moralistic goals rather than simply realistic ones and to
strive for perfection.
Levels of Consciousness
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Consciousness and Unconscious: are
the keys to understanding behavior and the problems of personality.
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The unconscious cannot be studied
directly but is inferred from behavior. This includes
dreams
– symbolic representations of unconscious needs, wishes, and conflicts
slips
of the tongue and forgetting, for example, a familiar name
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Larger part of the mind exists below the
surface of awareness.
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The unconscious stores all experiences,
memories, and repressed material.
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Needs and motivations that are
inaccessible or out of our awareness, are also outside the sphere of conscious
control.
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Most psychological functioning exists in
the out-of-awareness realm.
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Conscious mind is the portion of the
behaviour that we are fully aware of.
•
Subconsciousnes represents the part of
the behaviour that we are vaguely aware of (we are not fully aware of) such as
imaginations and wishes.
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Ego psychology concerns itself
with the development, structuring, and functioning of the ego and how one’s
self image affects who they display social interactions.
Anxiety
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Anxiety is a state of tension that
motivates us to do something.
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Anxiety develops out of a conflict among
the id, ego, and superego over control of available psychic energy.
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The function of anxiety is to warn of
impending danger.
Reality anxiety: fear
of danger from the external world
Neurotic anxiety: fear
that the instincts will get out of hand and cause one to do something for which
one will be punished.
Moral anxiety: fear
of one’s own conscious. People with a well developed conscious tend to feel
guilty when they do something contrary to their moral code.
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Neurotic and moral anxieties are evoked
by threats to the “balance of power” within the person.
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They signal to the ego that unless
appropriate measures are taken, the danger may increase until the ego is
overthrown.
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When the ego cannot control anxiety by
rational and direct methods, it relies on indirect ones – ego-defense behavior.
Ego –Defensive Mechanisms
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Help the individual cope with anxiety
and prevent the ego from being overwhelmed.
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Ego defenses are normal behaviors that
can have adaptive value provided they do not become a style of life that
enables the individual to avoid facing reality.
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The specific ego-defenses employed
depend on the individual’s level of development and degree of anxiety.
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Defense mechanisms have two
characteristics in common:
(1) they
either deny or distort reality; and
(2) they
operate on an unconscious level (we are not aware when we practice them).
Examples:
Repression:
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Threatening or painful thoughts and
feelings are excluded from awareness.
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Repression is an involuntary removal of
something from consciousness.
Denial:
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Denial generally operates at
preconscious and conscious levels.
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Denial of reality is a way of distorting
what the individual thinks, feels, or perceives in a traumatic situation.
Reaction formation:
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A defense against a threatening impulse
by actively expressing the opposite impulse.
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It involves developing conscious
attitudes and behaviors that are diametrically opposed to disturbing desires.
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In this way people do not have to face
the anxiety
Projection:
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Attributing to others one’s own
unacceptable desires and impulses.
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Lustful, aggressive, or other impulses
are seen as being possessed by “those people out there, but not by me.”
Displacement:
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The redirection of an impulse (usually
aggression) onto a powerless substitute target.
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The target can be a person or an object
that can serve as a symbolic substitute.
Sublimation:
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This is similar to displacement, but
takes place when we manage to displace our emotions into a constructive rather
than destructive activity.
Regression:
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This is a movement back in psychological
time when one is faced with stress.
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When we are troubled or frightened, our
behaviors often become more childish or primitive.
Rationalization:
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Rationalization is the cognitive
distortion of "the facts" to make an event or an impulse less
threatening.
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We do it often enough on a fairly
conscious level when we provide ourselves with excuses.
Development of Personality
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Provides the counselor with the
conceptual tools for understanding key developmental tasks characteristic of
the various stages of life.
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According to the Freudian psychoanalytic
view, first six years of life are vital in forming the personality.
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Three areas of personal and social
development are:
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love and trust
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dealing with negative feelings, and
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developing a positive acceptance of
sexuality.
Psychosexual Stages
Oral stage (1st Year)
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Infant needs basic nurturing or later
feelings of greediness and acquisitiveness may develop.
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Oral fixations result from deprivation
of oral gratification.
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Later personality problems can include
mistrust of others, rejecting others; love, and fear of or inability to form
intimate relationships.
Anal stage (1-3 Years)
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Developmental tasks include learning
independence, accepting personal power, and learning to express negative
feelings such as rage and aggression.
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Parental discipline patterns and attitudes
have significant consequences for child’s later personality development
Phallic stage (3-6 Years)
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Basic conflict centers on unconscious
incestuous desires that the child develops for parent of opposite sex.
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These desires are threatening and
therefore repressed
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Boys experience the Oedipus complex –
mother is love object for boys.
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Girls experience the Electra complex –
strive to win father’s love and approval.
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Both have impact on sexual attitudes and
feelings that the child later develops.
Latency stage (6-12 Years)
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Sexual interest are replaced by
interests in school, playmates, sports, and a range of new activities.
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This is a time of socialization and
forming relationships with others.
Genital stage (12-18 Years)
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Themes of phallic stage are revived.
This stage begins with puberty and lasts until senility sets in.
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Adolescents learn to deal with sexual
energy by investing it in various socially acceptable activities such as
friendships, engaging in art or sports, and preparing for a career.
PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT
[ERIK ERIKSON]
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Freud was an id psychologist
(emphasizing the conflict between the id and the superego)
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Erikson was an ego psychologist emphasizing
the role of our sense of self worthy in determining how we behave in social
contexts.
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He emphasized the role of culture and
society (socialization) and the conflicts that can take place within the ego
itself (to form the sense of self)
•
According to Erikson, the ego develops
as it successfully resolves eight social crises that are distinctly social in
nature.
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These involve establishing a sense of
trust in others, developing a sense of identity in society, and helping the
next generation prepare for the future.
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Erikson proposed a lifespan model of
development, taking in five stages up to the age of 18 years and three further
stages beyond, well into adulthood.
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Erikson puts a great deal of emphasis on
the adolescent period, feeling it was a crucial stage for developing a person’s
identity.
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Like Freud and many others, Erik Erikson
maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order, and builds upon
each previous stage.
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This is called the epigenic principle.
Psychosocial Stages
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Erikson’s (1959) theory of psychosocial
development has eight distinct stages.
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For Erikson (1963), these crises are of
a psychosocial nature because they involve psychological needs of the individual
(i.e. psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e. social).
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Successful completion of each stage
results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues.
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Failure to successfully complete a stage
can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and therefore a more
unhealthy personality and sense of self.
Infancy: Trust vs. Mistrust (0 – 12
months)
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The main question here is: Is the world
a safe place or is it full of unpredictable events and accidents waiting to
happen?
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The infant is uncertain about the world
in which they live.
•
To resolve these feelings of uncertainty
the infant looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency
of care
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Consistent, predictable and reliable
caregiving develops a sense of trust in a child which will carry with them to
other relationships (feeling secure)
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Success leads to the virtue of hope
(feeling the possibility that other people will be there are a source of
support.
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Harsh or inconsistent, unpredictable and
unreliable develops a sense of mistrust (lack of confidence in the world around
them or in their abilities to influence events.
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Basic sense of mistrust are carried to
other relationships resulting in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and an over
feeling of mistrust in the world around them.
Early Childhood: Autonomy vs. Shame and
Doubt (18 months – 3 years)
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The child is developing physically and
becoming more mobile to assert independence.
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The child is discovering that they have
many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing with
toys, etc.
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Such skills illustrate the child's
growing sense of independence and autonomy.
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Erikson states it is critical that
parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an
encouraging environment which is tolerant of failure.
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The aim has to be “self control without
a loss of self-esteem” (Gross, 1992).
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Success in this stage will lead to the
virtue of will.
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If children in this stage are encouraged
and supported in their increased independence, they become more confident and
secure in their own ability to survive in the world.
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If children are criticized, overly
controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to
feel inadequate (feel a sense of shame or doubt in their own abilities)
Pre-school Years: Initiative vs. Guilt
(3 – 6 years)
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Central to this stage is play, as it
provides children with the opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills
through initiating activities.
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Children begin to plan activities, make
up games, and initiate activities with others.
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If given this opportunity, children develop a
sense of initiative, and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make
decisions.
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Conversely, if this tendency is
squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of
guilt.
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They may feel like a nuisance to others
and will therefore remain followers, lacking in self-initiative.
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A healthy balance between initiative and
guilt is important. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of purpose.
School Age: Industry (competence) vs.
Inferiority (aged 5 to 12 yrs)
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Children are at the stage where they
will be learning to read and write, basic arithmetic, to do things on their
own.
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The child now feels the need to win
approval by demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by society, and
begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments.
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If children are encouraged and
reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious and feel
confident in their ability to achieve goals.
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If this initiative is not encouraged the
child begins to feel inferior, doubting his own abilities and therefore may not
reach his or her potential.
•
A balance between competence and modesty
is necessary. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of competence.
Adolescence: Identity vs. Role Confusion
(age 12 to 18 yrs)
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Children are becoming more independent
and want to belong to a society and fit in.
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It is during this stage that the
adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly who he or
she is.
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Erikson suggests that two identities are
involved: the sexual and the occupational.
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Success in this stage will lead to the
virtue of fidelity.
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Fidelity involves being able to commit
one's self to others on the basis of accepting others, even when there may be
ideological differences.
Young Adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation
(ages 18 to 40 yrs)
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Occurring in young adulthood we begin to
share ourselves more intimately with others.
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We explore relationships leading toward
longer term commitments with someone other than a family member.
•
Psychological maturity during this stage
is tested in the ability to form close relationship which entails self
disclosure and self less interests.
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Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment
and relationships for the fear of rejection can lead to isolation, loneliness,
and sometimes depression.
•
Success in this stage will lead to the
virtue of love.
Middle Age: Generativity vs. Stagnation
(ages 40 to 65 yrs)
•
During middle adulthood we establish our
careers, settle down within a relationship, begin our own families and develop
a sense of being a part of the bigger picture.
•
We give back to society through raising
our children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in community
activities and organizations.
•
Attempts to leave a legacy through
meaningful social contribution are made (virtue of care)
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We also deal with discrepancy between
dreams and what we have hoped for and reality.
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By failing to achieve these objectives,
we become stagnant and feel unproductive.
Later Life: Ego Integrity vs. Despair
(65+ yrs)
•
Time to contemplate r accomplishments to
develop integrity
•
If we see our lives as unproductive,
feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals,
we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair
•
Success in this stage will lead to the
virtue of wisdom.
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Wisdom enables a person to look back on
their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death
without fear.
REFLECTION
Compare and contrast
Psychosexual and Psychosocial Development
-what are the common concepts?
-how do they differ?
APPLICATION IN COUNSELLING
Psychodynamic Counselling Goal
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To make the unconscious conscious i.e
bringing out unconscious material where childhood experiences are
reconstructed, discussed, interpreted and analyzed.
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To strengthen the ego so that behavior
is based more on reality and less on instinctual cravings or irrational guilt.
ROLE OF THE COUNSELLOR
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Assist clients in achieving
self-awareness, honesty, and more effective personal relationships, dealing
with anxiety in a realistic way, and gaining control over impulsive and
irrational behavior.
•
Maintain a sense of neutrality in
order to foster a transference relationship where clients will make projections
onto them.
•
Establish a working relationship with
the client and they do a lot of listening and interpreting
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Pay attention to the client’s
resistances and make appropriate interpretations and listen for gaps and
inconsistencies in the client’s story
Client’s Experience
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Clients must commit to an intensive and
long-term therapy process.
•
After some face-to-face sessions with
the analyst, clients lie on a couch and free-associate (saying whatever comes
to mind without self-censorship).
•
Clients report their feelings,
experiences, associations, memories and fantasies to the analyst.
•
Lying on the couch encourages deep,
uncensored reflections and reduces the stimuli that might interfere with
getting in touch with internal conflicts.
Counsellor/Client Relationship
Transference: client’s
unconscious shifting to the analyst of feelings and fantasies that are
reactions to significant others in the client’s past.
Counter transference:
reactions counsellors have toward their clients that may interfere with their
objectivity.
COUNSELLING TECHNIQUES
Free association –clients
flow with any feelings or thoughts by reporting them immediately without
censorship (open the doors to unconscious wishes, fantasies, conflicts, and
motivations.)
Interpretation
–explaining and even teaching the client the meanings of behavior that is
manifested in dreams, free association, resistances, and the counselling
relationship itself.
Dream Analysis –uncovering
unconscious material and giving the client insight into some areas of
unresolved problems.
Dreams have two levels: latent content and manifest
content.
Latent content consists
of hidden, symbolic, and unconscious motives, wishes, and fears.
Manifest content is
the dream as it appears to the dreamer
Analysis
and Interpretation of Resistance – Resistance refers to any idea, attitude,
feeling, or action (conscious or unconscious) that fosters the status quo and
gets in the way of change. Resistance defends against anxiety.
Exploring unconscious material and defenses
primarily originating in early childhood. Working through is achieved by
repeating interpretations and by exploring forms of resistance.
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